Shanghai Conference
The Shanghai Conference was a summit of all the world powers with treaties involving China, convened in late July and early August of 1928. Its participants hoped to de-escalate the Jade Wind Crisis, which threatened to bring Germany and Japan into war, but its scope quickly broadened to solving the greater British Question in East Asia. The conference produced the Legation Treaty, signed in the Legation Quarter of Beijing, which ended the 4th Zhili-Fengtian war, required recognition of the Qing Government in Beijing by most warlords, and created the Legation Cities. The Fengtian Clique, renamed the Fengtian Government, remained independent and within Japan's sphere of influence. 4th Zhili-Fengtian War The 4th Zhili-Fengtian war began in March 1928 with Shanxi's declaration of Qing illegitimacy. This was planned as a surprise but was predicted due to German Intelligence operatives in Shanghai having cracked Japanese encryption from 1925. The Fengtian Clique's plan was for Shanxi to capture the two key railway arteries as happened in Wu Peifu's 1924 defeat, preventing reinforcements from moving north and allowing Fengtian forces to advance on Beijing. However, German Intelligence notified the Zhili of these plans, and the attacks were crushed. What emerged was a stalemate, in which Fengtian seemed unable to make progress. The Jade Wind Incident Due to Sun Chuanfang's mass mobilization of his good forces, he left behind the dregs of his army, past mercenaries and bandits to garrison his lands. This led to wide lawlessness in Eastern China, and foreigners quickly became an acceptable target for banditry. In 1928, bandits seized a train in the outskirts of Shanghai, and news of the incident was passed onto the proper authorities. Tokyo's response was nothing outside of the ordinary, and the German Intelligence felt snug, seeing all communications between the Home Islands and China. However, the Japanese military acted independently of Tokyo, and quickly occupied the areas surrounding Shanghai, to embark on a "rescue mission", ostensibly to save the foreign passengers. The Chinese and German forces in the city, surprised, turned the engagement into a full-blown firefight. Once news of it broke out, governments in Nanjing, Berlin and Tokyo began scrambling frantically to avoid war. A solution was found when the United States offered to mediate. The Conference The American mediation came at a cost. Their paramount interest in maintaining the Open Door Policy led the conference to quickly transition from a simple attempt to end the ongoing hostilities, into a meeting of far larger scope and consequence. The talks were almost ended as soon as they began, as Germany and Japan insisted upon Canadian non-participation due to a lack of a responsible British government. American delegate Quentin Roosevelt suggested that the Canadians take an observational position within the conference, which all agreed to. Within the first few days, the conference evolved into a comprehensive restructuring of the outside world's interactions with China, heavily shaped by American policy, which would let all nations trade with China equally. The success of the conference was dependent upon Japanese attempts to avoid isolation, German desires for greater Chinese influence without further military commitment, and American aspirations to preserve their own position, despite a public without any wishes for any militaristic adventures. Terms of the Conference An armistice was signed between the belligerents in China, and the previously rebellious Shanxi and Yunnan cliques agreed to recognize the Qing government. The Fengtian government stood as the exception, signing the armistice yet refused to recognize the Qing government, which was made permissible due to Japanese insistence. The International Mandate, commonly referred to as the Legation Cities (after the Legation Quarter in Beijing where the mandate was proclaimed) came to exist as an expanded form of the original International Settlement in Shanghai. The six coastal cities each retained their historical districts, while operating under a governor or local municipal council, themselves subordinate to the Consular Council, representing each of its member states' interests. Key to the agreement are the neutral zones, perhaps better described exclusion zones, surrounding the coastal cities. Chinese soldiers may never enter under arms, ensuring the security of the international cities, while also denying them as strategic value to warlords. Without the axes of trade in Shanghai and Tianjin, it was hoped that Chinese wars would die down like a flame lacking fuel. Results of the Conference To any outside observers, the 1928 conference of Shanghai brought peace to a war-torn nation. But underneath the surface, tensions remain high. Wars of espionage and ideology rage under Shanghai’s neon signs and in the winding alleyways of ancient cities. Some agitators call for brotherhood, others unity, and still others for revolution. The Shanghai conference only suppressed China's deep rivalries, but did not extinguish them. Should warfare resume, the stakes will be higher than ever as the fate of China may be decided once and for all. Category:History Category:Chinese-related topics